Abstract
The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), known in Iran
as the Sacred Defence, stands as one of the most
transformative events in contemporary Iranian
history, leaving an indelible mark on various
artistic domains, particularly painting. Within
the visual arts, the concept of resistance
emerged as one of the most significant cultural
and social consequences of the war, becoming
a central theme in the works of numerous
Iranian artists. Kazem Chalipa and Habibollah
Sadeghi are among the most prominent painters
of the Islamic Revolution, each employing a
distinct visual language to depict war and
resistance. Despite extensive scholarly research
on each of these artists individually, a direct and
comparative study that systematically examines
the concept of resistance in their works—with a
specific emphasis on the reflection of war—
remains conspicuously absent. This lacuna in
the literature underscores the necessity for a
focused investigation that bridges the analytical
gap between these two major figures in
contemporary Iranian art. The present study
aims to identify, analyse, and compare the
multifaceted concepts of resistance as
represented in selected works by these two
artists, elucidating the similarities and
differences in their artistic approaches to
portraying war and resilience, thereby
contributing to a deeper understanding of how
resistance has been visually articulated within
the broader framework of post-revolutionary
Iranian painting. The primary research question
guiding this investigation is what the key
concepts of resistance manifested in the
selected works of Kazem Chalipa and
Habibollah Sadeghi are, and what the principal
similarities and differences are in their
respective modes of visual representation. This
question directs the inquiry toward both the
thematic content and the formal strategies
employed by the two artists, enabling a
comprehensive comparison that goes beyond
mere iconography to encompass stylistic,
compositional, and semiotic dimensions. The
research adopts a qualitative approach and is
conducted using an analytical-comparative
method, with data collected through extensive
library-based research, including the
examination of books, scholarly articles,
exhibition catalogues, and reliable online
databases. The primary corpus of the study
consists of six purposefully selected works—
three by Kazem Chalipa and three by
Habibollah Sadeghi—chosen on the basis of
their direct thematic relevance to war,
resistance, sacrifice, and the visual culture of
the Sacred Defence, while also considering the
diversity of visual expression and the
comparability of works across the two artists'
oeuvres. The analytical framework focuses on
visual and semantic components such as
composition, colour palette, formal articulation,
spatial organisation, and the deployment of
symbolic motifs associated with war and
resistance, employing a semiotic reading and
visual content analysis to systematically
examine how each artist constructs meaning
and conveys the concept of resistance through
pictorial means, before drawing out the
convergences and divergences between the two
visual systems within the broader historical and
cultural context of contemporary Iranian art.
The findings demonstrate that both Chalipa and
Sadeghi unequivocally engage with resistance
as one of the cardinal themes of Islamic
Revolution art; however, their modes of
articulation diverge significantly in terms of
visual expression, narrative structure, and
symbolic orientation. Kazem Chalipa
predominantly portrays resistance through
direct action, the physical presence of
combatants, emblems of the Sacred Defence,
and explicit references to the culture of
martyrdom, exhibiting a tangible, epic, and
historically grounded quality wherein war is
presented as a palpable social and historical
reality.
Chalipa places particular emphasis on the
human figure, often representing individuals
not as isolated characters but as embodiments
of collective experience and national memory,
with facial expressions, bodily postures, and
interpersonal relationships within his
compositions frequently conveying themes of
suffering, hope, expectation, and steadfastness,
thereby framing war predominantly as a human
condition rather than a purely military event. In
contrast, Habibollah Sadeghi adopts a markedly
different approach, employing a symbolic and
expressionistic visual language that elevatesresistance beyond the level of military
engagement to encompass broader human,
cultural, and spiritual dimensions, wherein the
reflection of war manifests more obliquely
through depictions of suffering, displacement,
hope, and human perseverance. Sadeghi's
compositions often assume a narrative and
symbolic structure, utilising visual elements to
construct multi-layered narratives that may
reference specific historical events while
simultaneously evoking more universal themes
of human destiny and resilience, with the epic
atmosphere achieved through expansive
dimensions, dynamic arrangements, collective
figuration, and an emphasis on emotionally
charged moments, yet his epic vision is not
confined to power or triumph, as the presence
of emotional elements—such as grieving faces,
anticipation, and the remembrance of loss—
imbues the war narrative with a profound
human dimension. Furthermore, Sadeghi's
visual language is distinguished by its
integration of history, religion, and war,
employing religious signs and concepts to
interpret the experience of war and situate
historical events within a cultural and belief-
based framework, wherein religious
iconography typically assumes a symbolic
function alluding to martyrdom, sacrifice, and
redemption, thereby transforming war from a
mere historical occurrence into a meaningful
existential and spiritual experience. The
comparative analysis reveals that while both
artists draw upon a shared historical and
cultural context, their approaches represent two
distinct semantic trajectories: Chalipa
emphasises "resistance as social action,"
whereas Sadeghi foregrounds "resistance as
meaning and belief." A semiotic examination of
shared motifs—such as the martyr, the fighter,
the mother, the child, blood, earth, and the
flag—further elucidates these differences, as in
Chalipa's system the martyr appears primarily
as a historical hero and bearer of collective
values, while in Sadeghi's the martyr becomes
a sacred, trans-historical symbol bridging earth
and sky, life and death; similarly, the mother
figure in Chalipa's works represents the family
and community enduring the burdens of war,
whereas in Sadeghi's paintings she assumes a
more symbolic role as the source of
compassion, suffering, and rebirth, and the
child signifies future and continuity in Chalipa's
art, while Sadeghi employs the child to
accentuate the contrast between innocence and
the violence of war. In sum, the study concludes
that the symbol of resistance in the works of
Kazem Chalipa and Habibollah Sadeghi
follows two distinct yet complementary
semantic paths: one representing resistance
through epic, history,